18th century fashion

Object Type'Court dress' was an exclusive and very ornate style of clothing worn by the aristocracy, the only people usually invited to attend at Court. The style of the robe is quite old-fashioned, and based on the 17th-century mantua.Designs & DesigningThe shell, the quintessential Rococo motif, constitutes the basis of the embroidery pattern. Leafy scrolls, latticed arcades and tassels are also featured, as well a profusion of realistically rendered flowers, including jasmine, morning glory and honeysuckle, peonies, roses, poppies, anemones, auriculas, hyacinths, carnations, cornflowers, tulips and daffodils. The pattern of the silver shells and scrolls has been arranged symmetrically at the hem, but the layout of the flowers, while balanced, does not match exactly on either side. This ensemble recalls a garment worn by the Duchess of Queensbury in 1740: 'her cloathes were embroidered upon white satin; Vine leaves, Convulvus and Rosebuds shaded after Nature ...'.Materials & MakingSeven panels of ivory-ribbed silk make up the petticoat. The robings, sleeve cuffs and skirt of the mantua are embroidered in the same design, but were modified to fit their exact proportions.The flowers are worked in a variety of coloured silks in satin stitch and french knots. Silver thread delineates the leaves and the non-floral components of the pattern. Some of the scrolls and border elements have a backing of parchment, for solidity and regularity of line. The tassels and bases of the shells have been thickly padded underneath. Varying the height of the padding under the embroidery of the silver leaves gives the surface of the stitching a rippled effect.

The later 17th century witnessed a massive boom in the popularity of Asian textiles in Britain. The generic craze for all things eastern - Indian chintz dress and furnishings together with Chinese silk fabrics, meant that the terms 'Indian' and 'Chinese' were often used interchangeably for exotic furnishings and curiosities. The confusion is a natural one, given that this period also saw the beginnings of the trade in Chinese silk, in the form of both unwoven yarn and finished textiles. Although Chinese and Indian decorative textiles for the western market share many characteristics, such as a predominately floral design repertoire that incorporates eastern and western elements, the techniques, materials and designs of the two regions are quite distinct. The bulk of the China textile trade was in less spectacular plain silks and unwoven yarn, but there was also a strong market for beautifully painted and embroidered silk fabrics, used for women's gowns like this example. Chinese silks could compete with the more popular French and other European silks for formal wear, providing the distinct rustling sound which was still considered an essential element of fashion.

This petticoat dating from 1782 is made of white silk woven with silver strip in a design of small silver leaves. It is decorated with a fringe made of strands of silver thread, strip and spangles, interspersed with tassels of the same materials. The petticoat is part of a wedding ensemble said to have been worn by Miss Sara Bodicott, who was married, in Norfolk, in 1782. White and silver became popular colours for brides after Oliver Goldsmith's play, The Good-Natur'd Man was first performed in 1768. As the heroine prepares to elope, her maid remarks: 'I wish you could take the white and silver to be married in. It's the worst luck in the world, in anything but white'. Despite Goldsmith's foreboding, wedding dresses in colours other than white continued to be worn well into the 19th century.

This formal man's suit of about 1760 is made from cut and uncut yellow and purple silk velvet with a ground enriched with silver strip. The fabric was probably made in France. Such a luxurious material would have been worn for the most formal evening occasions, for example visiting the theatre or the opera. As with all formal men's wear, it was worn with lace ruffles at the wrists and throat. By 1760 the fronts of the coat are starting to curve back. The side pleats are less voluminous than they were earlier in the century. The waistcoat has shortened to mid-thigh length.

This formal man's suit of about 1760 is probably made of French silk, patterned in cerise and cream. Such a luxurious material would have been worn for the most formal evening occasions, such as theatre or the opera. It is fairly lightweight, which suggests the suit was intended for summer wear. By 1760 the fronts of coats are starting to curve back. The side pleats are less voluminous than they were earlier in the century. The waistcoat has shortened to mid-thigh length. The collar seen on daywear is still absent in evening dress.

In the 1770s a new style of wearing gowns was introduced, called a polonaise. Using buttons and loops, the skirt of the gown was draped up to create a swathed effect at the back. This gown is a painted silk, made in China specifically for export to Europe. It was probably made in the 1760s. It was remade into a polonaise in the 1770s, and then altered considerably in the late 19th century for fancy dress. The green silk trim and rosettes seen here are 19th century additions.

Miniature painting originally referred to the art of painting in watercolour on vellum (fine animal skin). It developed in the early 16th century out of the tradition of illuminating manuscripts (hand-written books). In England, miniature was predominantly a portrait art. It was practised by specialist miniature painters, such as Nicholas Hilliard (1547-1619). On the Continent, miniature painting as a portrait art had a few great practitioners, such as the French painter Jean Clouet (1516?-1572). But not even Clouet was a specialist. Like Hans Holbein, he worked both in miniature and in large in oil. In France, it was not until the 1770s that a notable school of portrait miniaturists emerged. It was only then that they were able to rival English ones, such as Richard Cosway (1742-1821) and John Smart (1742-1811). Like Cosway and Smart, these French artists worked in watercolour on ivory. Ivory had been introduced in place of vellum in the early 18th century by Rosalba Carriera (1675-1757), a Venetian artist. The use of this new support developed in distinct ways in England and on the Continent. Heinrich Friedrich Fueger (or Füger) was born in Heilbronn in Germany on 8 December 1751. By the age of eight he was already painting miniature portraits. From 1776 he was in Italy, where he studied classical art and the works of Raphael and Anton Raffael Mengs. He rejected an invitation to St Petersburg and instead returned to Vienna, in 1783. There he became vice-director of the Akademie der Bildenden Künste, and in 1795 its director. As court painter he became the most popular portrait artist in Vienna. But about 1798 an eye ailment prevented his painting miniatures. He also painted a number of important large-scale paintings. He died in Vienna on 5 November 1818.

In the 18th century, women's pockets were not sewn into their gowns. Instead they were attached to a tape and tied around the waist as separate garments. Worn under the hoops and petticoats, they were accessed through openings in the gown and petticoat seams. Quilting was a popular form of decoration for a variety of garments including pockets. However, hand-quilting was a time-consuming method of decoration. The increased demand for quilted petticoats, waistcoats and pockets led to the invention of woven quilting. In this technique, an extra weft of thick thread was added to the fabric to give the raised effect of the handmade version. Robert Elsden is credited as the inventor of woven quilting, known by the French term, matelassé. He received a prize from the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce, in 1745, although the perfection and commercial exploitation of this technique of machine quilting appears to have taken place in the 1760s. This is an example of matelassé linen, which has been clearly woven into a pocket shape and could not be sewn into any other object. It may represent a 'ready-made' pocket, one sewn up and sold as a finished accessory, rather than made at home.

Object TypeThis portrait by Francis Cotes is a good example of a pastel from the 18th century, when pastel painting was at its most fashionable. 'Pastel' is a coloured crayon made out of pigment mixed with a water-soluble binder such as gum.Pastels can be blended on paper to achieve a soft, dusty finish. Because this tonal technique is more like painting than drawing it is known as 'pastel painting'.TimeThis portrait dates from around 1755-1764. These dates are based partly on the fact that Cotes did not begin to produce works of this quality until 1755, and partly on costume style and hair style.Materials and MakingPastel offered a number of advantages over oil. It was a quick medium to work in since no drying time was necessary, so the sitter spent less time at the artist's studio. Pastels were also cheaper than oils because they tended to be smaller in size, required fewer pigments and less time on the artist's part. Unlike oils, pastels also had to be protected with glass, an expensive commodity at this date, which gave them added lustre and glamour.

Object TypeThe fan was probably purchased as a paper leaf in Italy and mounted on the fan sticks in Britain. The ivory sticks are beautifully carved, and the classical urns on the guardsticks are painted in blue enamel and gold paint.Subject DepictedThe ivory sticks are carved with scenes from Classical mythology. Apollo and Daphne are represented in the central cartouche, with putti in the smaller compartments.PlacesThe Grand Tour was a lengthy trip taken around Europe as part of the cultural education of 18th-century British gentlemen. It has some similarity to the 'gap year' many university students take today to travel the world. Paris and Italy were the most important destinations. But along with Florence and Rome, Naples was also a key stop on the Tour. When visiting the city in 1777,Thomas Pelham wrote to his parents about the sites depicted on this fan:'I was, the other day, on the top of Vesuvius, highly delighted and astonished as you may easily imagine. The volcano was very quiet, no fire visible and little smoke; the different views of Naples, Pozzuoli, Baia, Capri, etc. etc. are charming and in beauty and extent exceed any view I ever saw.'

Gold or silver buckles for shoes were in fashion for most of the 18th century. They gave the finishing touches to elegant dress and were one of the few pieces of jewellery worn by men as well as women. Gentlemen wore matching shoe and knee buckles. Making buckles became a highly skilled craft at which English silversmiths and jewellers excelled. Exquisitely wrought designs, glittering pastes and precious stones reflected the status of the wearer as well as the occasion. Cheaper and plainer versions were made of steel, brass and other metal alloys. This buckle features jasperware plaques mounted on cut steel - a brightly polished steel, usually with pierced or faceted decoration, which was popular from around the 1760s to the 1880s. Jasperware is a very fine-grained white stoneware that can be stained a range of colours. It was developed in the 1770s by the ceramic entrepreneur Josiah Wedgwood, who sought to break into the cameo market by making small medallions of coloured jasperware with white relief.

This young woman's jacket (called a caraco in the 18th century) and matching petticoat are made of painted and dyed cotton fabric (chintz) produced in south-east India's Coromandel Coast for export to Europe in about 1770. The design is entirely hand-drawn, not printed. The red and blue colour scheme is achieved using the complex processes of resist-dyeing (for the blue) and mordant-dyeing (for the red), which also involve repeated stages of bleaching and rinsing. This fabric would have been brought to England by the East India Company as part of the immense trade in Indian textiles that was taking place. It was evidently made up into this stylish ensemble in about the 1770s. The caraco is ingeniously constructed. One T-shaped piece of cloth forms the back and the sleeves, which fold over the arm, forming a raglan sleeve in the front. The back is shaped using tucks rather than the more usual pleats or seams.

New hairstyles for men in the 1720s and 1730s prompted a change in neckwear. Hair was worn shorter and confined at the nape in a small black silk bag. A stock made of folded and pleated linen or cotton created the effect of a white column supporting the head. Stocks continued to be worn for formal and full dress throughout the 18th century. They were fastened at the back of the neck by a button, tape or detachable buckle. Buckles were commonly used because they were easier to adjust and kept the stock firmly in place with three or four studs inserted into buttonholes at one end, the other end being fastened by prongs. Stock buckles are usually oblong with a distinctive pattern formed by the studs and prongs. Some are very plain but they can be more elaborate. Buckles could also be worn at the front and some fashionable gentlemen such as the dandy Richard 'Beau' Nash chose to be painted with the buckle showing. Also known as clasps, buckles were included in clothing issued to officers of the 17th Light Dragoons in 1778.

New hairstyles for men in the 1720s and 1730s prompted a change in neckwear. Hair was worn shorter and confined at the nape in a small black silk bag. A stock made of folded and pleated linen or cotton created the effect of a white column supporting the head. Stocks continued to be worn for formal and full dress throughout the 18th century. They were fastened at the back of the neck by a button, tape or detachable buckle. Buckles were commonly used because they were easier to adjust and kept the stock firmly in place with three or four studs inserted into buttonholes at one end, the other end being fastened by prongs. Stock buckles are usually oblong with a distinctive pattern formed by the studs and prongs. Some are very plain but they can be more elaborate. Buckles could also be worn at the front and some fashionable gentlemen such as the dandy Richard 'Beau' Nash chose to be painted with the buckle showing. Also known as clasps, stock buckles were included in clothing issued to officers of the 17th Light Dragoons in 1778.

Women's waistcoats were usually sleeveless like a man's waistcoat, but shorter and shaped to fit over stays. Worn with a petticoat and bedgown, a waistcoat formed part of the informal ensemble of women's dress. It could be worn under a gown to provide extra warmth. This waistcoat is made of silk quilted in a diaper pattern. Bright yellow was a popular colour for women's dress from the 1740s to the 1770s. Quilting was a common type of needlework in the 18th century, as it was both decorative and practical. It can also be seen on petticoats and gowns. This waistcoat has a matching pair of pockets.

Women's underwear served two purposes in the 18th century. The first function, carried out by the shift or smock, was to protect the clothing from the body, in an age when daily bathing was not customary. Made of very fine linen, the shift was the first garment put on when dressing. Over the shift went the linen stays, heavily reinforced with strips of whalebone. Their purpose was to mould the torso to the fashionable shape and provide a rigid form on which the gown could be arranged and fastened. The hoops were also made of linen and stiffened with whalebone or cane. They shaped the petticoat of the gown to the appropriate silhouette. At various times during the 18th century, this profile varied from round, to square and flat, to fan-shaped.

Thick wool fabric lends a sculptural quality to the 'mariner's cuff' on this strictly utilitarian garment. Such a style of cuff was first seen on the coats worn by naval officers in the 1740s (navy uniform was not made official until 1748) and became a popular feature of both men's fashionable coats and ladies' riding jackets. A vertical opening with a scalloped flap runs parallel to the length of the sleeve and intersects the cuff. The lack of any decoration except a brown velvet collar reinforces the coat's informality. Its grey-brown shade suggests that it might be the colour known in the 18th century as 'drab'. A label sewn to the inside collar indicates that this coat once belonged to the 19th-century theatrical costumiers, L & H Nathan, where it experienced a second life, no doubt one more arduous, on the stage.

It was common practice to leave the side and back seams of men's coats open in the 18th century. This tradition derived from 17th-century riding coats, as it allowed the garment to drape comfortably while seated on a horse. Open seams also accommodated the sword worn by all gentlemen during this period. The fashion of the 1740s for extravagant full-skirted coats waned in the 1750s and 1760s. Side pleats were not as deep as the silhouette became more slender. This coat forms part of a suit with breeches and waistcoat, all made of felted superfine russet wool. Silver-gilt buttons comprise the only adornment. Such an ensemble would have been worn as formal daywear in Britain.

A stomacher is a decorative panel of fabric, usually triangular in shape, worn to fill the space between the front edges of a woman's open gown. The stomacher formed part of the ensemble of fashionable women's dress from the 1680s to the 1780s. This example mimics the buttoned fastening and skirts of a man's waistcoat. It may well have been worn with a jacket styled after masculine fashions, such as a woman's riding coat. The design and execution of the embroidery, as well as the style of the stomacher, suggest an Italian origin.

A woman's riding outfit, known as a 'riding habit', frequently included a waistcoat styled after those worn by men, which accompanied a masculine-style coat and a petticoat (or skirt). This double-breasted example with high collar and revers (lapels) reflects the fashionable styles of men's waistcoats in the early 1790s. The back lacing allowed a snug fit over stays and under a closely tailored coat.

Miniature painting originally referred to the art of painting in watercolour on vellum (fine animal skin). It developed in the early 16th century out of the tradition of illuminating manuscripts (hand-written books). In England, miniature was predominantly a portrait art. It was practised by specialist miniature painters, such as Nicholas Hilliard (1547-1619). On the Continent, miniature painting as a portrait art had a few great practitioners, such as the French painter Jean Clouet (1516?-1572). But not even Clouet was a specialist. Like Hans Holbein, he worked both in miniature and in large in oil. In France, it was not until the 1770s that a notable school of portrait miniaturists emerged. It was only then that they were able to rival English ones, such as Richard Cosway (1742-1821) and John Smart (1742-1811). Like Cosway and Smart, these French artists worked in watercolour on ivory. In the early 18th century ivory began to replace vellum as a support for miniature painting. It was introduced by Rosalba Carriera (1675-1757), a Venetian artist. Its use developed in distinct ways in England and on the Continent. In continental Europe, and especially in France, Carriera's method of using opaque 'gouache' (watercolour mixed with white) was influential. She exploited the ivory primarily by leaving the face transparent. In contrast, by the 1770s artists of the English School tended towards transparent pigments. They very rarely used gouache.

This 1760s gown features a rose-red silk with trails of ivory flowers woven in a complex technique. The fabric, a type of silk known as gros de tours, dates from the 1740s, but the gown itself has been remade into the style of the 1760s. It may have started out as a fashionable 1740s sack-back gown and would have featured the 'wing' cuff sleeve popular during that decade. In the 1760s, the garment was restyled into the popular English style of gown with pleated back. The cuffs were replaced with single ruffles with scalloped and pinked edges. Due to the great expense of silk, it was very common practice in the 18th century for women to remake and update their gowns. Gros de tours silks were luxury fabrics in the 1740s, costing between 6 shillings and twelve shillings per yard; a sack-back gown required some fifteen yards of silk.

In the 18th century, women's pockets were not sewn into their gowns. Instead they were attached to a tape and tied around the waist as separate garments. Worn under the hoops and petticoats, they were accessed through openings in the gown and petticoat seams. They were sometimes made to match other garments, for example a bodice or petticoat. This pair of quilted yellow silk pockets is part of an ensemble with a matching waistcoat (T.87-1978). Such a bright shade of yellow was popular for women's dress from the 1740s to the 1770s. Many bodices, waistcoats and aprons of the mid-1700s used the technique of quilting for both decoration and warmth. An elaborate quilted scroll adorns the pocket edges, with a plain diaper pattern in the centre. The top edge of each pocket is angled slightly, possibly to make the pockets sit correctly over the hips. Whether these were fastened in front or behind the waist is not clear from documentation and images of women wearing pockets.

Object TypeThe passion for wearing silks spread to women's shoes in the 18th century. Until the 1790s, very little leather was used for women's footwear, except boots for outdoors. The curved heel and pointed up-turned toe of this shoe are typical of women's shoes of the 1730s.Ownership & UseSuch a delicate shoe was intended for indoor wear only. When travelling, riding or walking outdoors, women wore leather boots. Dancing offered an excellent opportunity to show off elegant shoes normally hidden under petticoats.Materials & MakingThe sole of the shoe is leather with a silk upper. Considerable care has been taken to fit a floral motif over the toe of the shoe. The side straps, or latchets, overlap and would normally be held closed by a steel buckle, cut and polished to simulate diamonds.

Gold or silver buckles for shoes were in fashion for most of the 18th century. They gave the finishing touches to elegant dress and were one of the few pieces of jewellery worn by men as well as women. Gentlemen wore matching shoe and knee buckles. Making buckles became a highly skilled craft at which English silversmiths and jewellers excelled. Exquisitely wrought designs, glittering pastes and precious stones reflected the status of the wearer as well as the occasion. Cheaper and plainer versions were made of steel, brass and other metal alloys. By 1790 shoe buckles were falling out of use, except as part of ceremonial or court dress. This silver buckle with a steel pinder - the loop at the back of the buckle - is one of a pair, with Museum no. M.34A-1909.

Gold or silver buckles for shoes were in fashion for most of the 18th century. They gave the finishing touches to elegant dress and were one of the few pieces of jewellery worn by men as well as women. Gentlemen wore matching shoe and knee buckles. Making buckles became a highly skilled craft at which English silversmiths and jewellers excelled. Exquisitely wrought designs, glittering pastes and precious stones reflected the status of the wearer as well as the occasion. Cheaper and plainer versions were made of steel, brass and other metal alloys. By 1790 shoe buckles were falling out of use, except as part of ceremonial or court dress. This silver buckle with a steel pinder - the loop at the back of the buckle - is one of a pair, with Museum no. M.34-1909.

Object TypeKnotting was a popular and widely practiced occupation for women in the 18th century. A length of linen or silk thread was wound onto a knotting shuttle, and with it a series of knots made at close intervals, to form a length of trimming. This could then be applied to a ground fabric decoratively as a type of embroidery, or made into fringes for trimming furnishings like bed hangings and covers.Social ClassRequiring regular but undemanding manipulation of the thread, knotting was easy to take up and put down, to work on while travelling or conversing. Decorated knotting bags, containing shuttle and thread, were regularly carried around, even to theatres and assemblies. The Comtesse de Genlis, in her Dictionary of Court Etiquette, maintained that knotting had no other purpose than to enable a woman to appear composed when in company.

Gold or silver buckles for shoes were in fashion for most of the 18th century. They gave the finishing touches to elegant dress and were one of the few pieces of jewellery worn by men as well as women. Gentlemen wore matching shoe and knee buckles. Making buckles became a highly skilled craft at which English silversmiths and jewellers excelled. Exquisitely wrought designs, glittering pastes and precious stones reflected the status of the wearer as well as the occasion. Cheaper and plainer versions were made of steel, brass and other metal alloys. By 1790 shoe buckles were falling out of use, except as part of ceremonial or court dress. This buckle is one of a pair, with Museum no. 899A-1877.

Gold or silver buckles for shoes were in fashion for most of the 18th century. They gave the finishing touches to elegant dress and were one of the few pieces of jewellery worn by men as well as women. Gentlemen wore matching shoe and knee buckles. Making buckles became a highly skilled craft at which English silversmiths and jewellers excelled. Exquisitely wrought designs, glittering pastes and precious stones reflected the status of the wearer as well as the occasion. Cheaper and plainer versions were made of steel, brass and other metal alloys. By 1790 shoe buckles were falling out of use, except as part of ceremonial or court dress. This buckle is one of a pair, with Museum no. 899-1877.

Gold or silver buckles for shoes were in fashion for most of the 18th century. They gave the finishing touches to elegant dress and were one of the few pieces of jewellery worn by men as well as women. Gentlemen wore matching shoe and knee buckles. Making buckles became a highly skilled craft at which English silversmiths and jewellers excelled. Exquisitely wrought designs, glittering pastes and precious stones reflected the status of the wearer as well as the occasion. Cheaper and plainer versions were made of steel, brass and other metal alloys. By 1790 shoe buckles were falling out of use, except as part of ceremonial or court dress. This buckle is one of a pair, with Museum no. M.36-1909.

Gold or silver buckles for shoes were in fashion for most of the 18th century. They gave the finishing touches to elegant dress and were one of the few pieces of jewellery worn by men as well as women. Gentlemen wore matching shoe and knee buckles. Making buckles became a highly skilled craft at which English silversmiths and jewellers excelled. Exquisitely wrought designs, glittering pastes and precious stones reflected the status of the wearer as well as the occasion. Cheaper and plainer versions were made of steel, brass and other metal alloys. By 1790 shoe buckles were falling out of use, except as part of ceremonial or court dress. This buckle is one of a pair, with Museum no. M.33A-1909.

Gold or silver buckles were popular in the 18th century, giving the finishing touches to elegant dress. They were one of the few pieces of jewellery worn by men, who wore matching shoe and knee buckles, those at the knee fastening breeches at the side. Making buckles became a highly skilled craft at which English silversmiths excelled. Exquisitely wrought designs, glittering pastes and precious stones reflected the status of the wearer as well as the occasion. Cheaper and plainer versions were made of steel, brass and other metal alloys. This buckle, one of a pair, with Museum no. 954A-1864, bears the mark of the London buckle-maker John Rich.

A modest silver lace (braid) adorns this waistcoat of plain blue silk satin. In the 18th century the term lace applied to the fine linen variety that we are familiar with, as well as what we now call braid. In this example, silk, silver thread and silver-gilt strip have been woven in a simple geometric pattern. Like many metal laces of this period, the silver has tarnished and only a faint glimmer of the gilt remains. Skilful mitring and gathering allows the 2 cm-wide lace to be fitted around the corners and curved lines of the pocket and pocket flap. The short skirt of the waistcoat is typical of the 1770s.

Object TypeShoe buckles first appeared in the 1660s, replacing elaborate shoe ribbons (known as 'roses') to fasten men's shoes. At first plain and utilitarian, shoe buckles became more elaborate as the 18th century progressed.Materials & MakingThese buckles are made of silver-plated steel, a less expensive version of silver. Over time and with zealous cleaning, however, the plate will wear away, as in this case.Design & DesigningThe rectangular frame was a popular shape in the late 1770s and the 1780s, a reflection of the influence of Neo-classical design. Beaded decoration replaced the florid curves of buckles of the Rococo period.

By the late 18th century, some Italian fan makers were working in London. Here they capitalised on the English taste for the Neo-classical style. This fan uses an etching by Francesco Bartolozzi, who worked in London from 1764 to 1802. The vignettes imitate relief sculpture. They are taken from a book Designs and Ornaments, published from 1777 to 1782. The other motifs on the leaf are based on illustrations of the wall paintings discovered at Herculaneum. This was a Roman town buried under volcanic ash in 79 AD. Archaeologists discovered the remains in 1738. Illustrations of them appeared in a variety of books from the late 1750s through the 1770s. The very finely carved and pierced ivory sticks were probably made in Dieppe, France.

Gold or silver buckles for shoes were in fashion for most of the 18th century. They gave the finishing touches to elegant dress and were one of the few pieces of jewellery worn by men as well as women. Gentlemen wore matching shoe and knee buckles. Making buckles became a highly skilled craft at which English silversmiths and jewellers excelled. Exquisitely wrought designs, glittering pastes and precious stones reflected the status of the wearer as well as the occasion. Cheaper and plainer versions were made of steel, brass and other metal alloys. By 1790 shoe buckles were falling out of use, except as part of ceremonial or court dress.

Gold or silver buckles for shoes were in fashion for most of the 18th century. They gave the finishing touches to elegant dress and were one of the few pieces of jewellery worn by men as well as women. Gentlemen wore matching shoe and knee buckles. Making buckles became a highly skilled craft at which English silversmiths and jewellers excelled. Exquisitely wrought designs, glittering pastes and precious stones reflected the status of the wearer as well as the occasion. Cheaper and plainer versions were made of steel, brass and other metal alloys. By 1790 shoe buckles were falling out of use, except as part of ceremonial or court dress.

Gold or silver buckles for shoes were in fashion for most of the 18th century. They gave the finishing touches to elegant dress and were one of the few pieces of jewellery worn by men as well as women. Gentlemen wore matching shoe and knee buckles. Making buckles became a highly skilled craft at which English silversmiths and jewellers excelled. Exquisitely wrought designs, glittering pastes and precious stones reflected the status of the wearer as well as the occasion. Cheaper and plainer versions were made of steel, brass and other metal alloys. By 1790 shoe buckles were falling out of use, except as part of ceremonial or court dress.

Gold or silver buckles for shoes were in fashion for most of the 18th century. They gave the finishing touches to elegant dress and were one of the few pieces of jewellery worn by men as well as women. Gentlemen wore matching shoe and knee buckles. Making buckles became a highly skilled craft at which English silversmiths and jewellers excelled. Exquisitely wrought designs, glittering pastes and precious stones reflected the status of the wearer as well as the occasion. Cheaper and plainer versions were made of steel, brass and other metal alloys. By 1790 shoe buckles were falling out of use, except as part of ceremonial or court dress.

Beatrix Potter found some of the inspiration for her book The Tailor of Gloucester at the South Kensington Museum (now the V&A). She told her editor, Norman Warne, 'I have been delighted to find I may draw some most beautiful 18th century clothes at S. Kensington museum'. This waistcoat, which the Museum acquired in 1898, is one piece she copied for her illustrations, and it appears several times in the book. The waistcoat would have been part of a dress suit worn by men at formal occasions. The embroidery was worked in a professional workshop, with coloured silk in stem, satin stitches. The front edges are laid with cotton net and edged with couched chenille thread.

Women's riding outfits, known as 'riding habits', of the 18th century adapted elements of men's dress. This jacket of the 1750s is styled after a man's coat, although it has been modified with a waist seam to fit over stays and a wide petticoat. Another masculine element is the mariner's cuff, with a scalloped flap running parallel to the length of the sleeve. It was a style first seen on the coats of naval officers, although their uniform was not officially defined until 1748. The mariner's cuff became a fashionable feature of civilian coats in the 1750s and soon began to appear on women's riding habits.

Gold or silver buckles for shoes were in fashion for most of the 18th century. They gave the finishing touches to elegant dress and were one of the few pieces of jewellery worn by men as well as women. Gentlemen wore matching shoe and knee buckles. Making buckles became a highly skilled craft in England and in France. Exquisitely wrought designs, glittering pastes and precious stones reflected the status of the wearer as well as the occasion. Cheaper and plainer versions were made of steel, brass and other metal alloys. By 1790 shoe buckles were falling out of use, except as part of ceremonial or court dress.

Gold or silver buckles were popular in the 18th century, giving the finishing touches to elegant dress. They were one of the few pieces of jewellery worn by men, who wore matching shoe and knee buckles, those at the knee fastening breeches at the side. Making buckles became a highly skilled craft at which English silversmiths excelled. Exquisitely wrought designs, glittering pastes and precious stones reflected the status of the wearer as well as the occasion. Cheaper and plainer versions were made of steel, brass and other metal alloys. This buckle is one of a pair, with Museum no. 950A-1864.

The central vignette of this fan represents a fashionable English garden of the mid 18th century. A stone bench, a ruined classical colonnade and a curious pyramid-like structure (possibly an icehouse) crowd the composition. The design of the fan is slightly unusual. It has giant still-life grapes, peacock and spaniel placed alongside the much smaller central figures. The vast range of embellishment seen on fans made a large assembly a very decorative affair. The Spectator commented in 1711 on the 'infinite number of Cupids, Altars, Birds, Beasts, Rainbows and the like agreeable Figures' that appeared when ladies unfurled their fans.

Although women with artistic aspirations had few opportunities in 18th-century France, several female artists - often daughters or sisters of established artists - were able to carve out careers for themselves. Marie-Jeanne Doré, the painter of this fresh-faced portrait of a young girl, was a typical case. She received much of her training from her brother-in-law, the portraitist François-Hubert Drouais, with whom she lived after he married her elder sister in 1758. So similar was her style to Drouais's that for years this picture was attributed to him. However, comparison with other paintings by Doré has identified this portrait as her own work.

Gold or silver buckles were popular in the 18th century, giving the finishing touches to elegant dress. They were one of the few pieces of jewellery worn by men, who wore matching shoe and knee buckles, those at the knee fastening breeches at the side. Making buckles became a highly skilled craft at which English silversmiths excelled. Exquisitely wrought designs, glittering pastes and precious stones reflected the status of the wearer as well as the occasion. Cheaper and plainer versions were made of steel, brass and other metal alloys. This buckle is one of a pair, with Museum no. 950-1864.

Gold or silver buckles for shoes were in fashion for most of the 18th century. They gave the finishing touches to elegant dress and were one of the few pieces of jewellery worn by men as well as women. Gentlemen wore matching shoe and knee buckles. Making buckles became a highly skilled craft, with exquisitely wrought designs, glittering pastes and precious stones that reflected the status of the wearer as well as the occasion. Cheaper and plainer versions were made of steel, brass and other metal alloys. By 1790 shoe buckles were falling out of use, except as part of ceremonial or court dress.

Gold or silver buckles were popular in the 18th century, giving the finishing touches to elegant dress. They were one of the few pieces of jewellery worn by men, who wore matching shoe and knee buckles, those at the knee fastening breeches at the side. Making buckles became a highly skilled craft in England and France. Exquisitely wrought designs, glittering pastes and precious stones reflected the status of the wearer as well as the occasion. Cheaper and plainer versions were made of steel, brass and other metal alloys. This buckle is one of a pair, with Museum no. M.35A-1909.

Some mid 18th-century fans are miniature versions of paintings by well-known landscape artists. The work of Joseph Vernet inspired this particular example. He was famous for his harbour scenes, and his paintings characteristically show groups of fishermen and fishing boats. The painter of the fan leaf has faithfully reproduced Vernet's style and composition. The wide, closely spaced ivory sticks are typical of the 1750s. The scene carved on the guardsticks shows a gentleman talking to a cherub. As usual, the image on the sticks bears no relation to that on the leaf. This is because each part of the fan was usually designed by different artists and made separately.

Many 18th-century fans commemorated important events. They marked the births, marriages and deaths of well-known people, royal occasions or major social events. This fan celebrates George III's recovery from illness in 1789. The simple, emblematic design includes the rose and thistle, symbolising the Union of Scotland and England by Act of Parliament in 1707. Above are the words, 'Health is restored to ONE and happiness to Millions'. The fan may have been designed for ladies to carry at the great ball given at Court in 1789 to celebrate the king's recovery.

Object TypeShoe buckles made in cut and polished steel were a fashionable accessory at the end of the 18th century. Cut-steel shoe buckles remained an essential part of formal court dress until well into the 20th century.PlacesThe main centres of production of shoe-buckles were in the Midlands, especially Wolverhampton and Birmingham. Woodstock near Oxford and Salisbury in Wiltshire also had a number of small workshops producing high-quality and expensive buckles. Many buckles must have been bought by a retailer from these local manufacturers, then offered for sale from fashionable addresses in London's New Bond Street.TradingLike many London retailers, the C. Wades whose name and address appears on the shagreen case made for these buckles, sold other fashionable fashion accessories, such as swords, watches and jewellery. Although these silver buckles bear no date letter, they must date from before 1794, when the name and address of the retailer changed. Mary Whitford and William Ballantine are recorded as buckle-makers in 1778.

Shoe buckles were fashionable for both men and women for most of the 18th century. Although they were functional items they could be richly decorated. Many buckles in paste or imitation stones have survived but it is rare for examples in precious stones to survive. Jewellers made buckles in precious stones and silversmiths made plain silver ones. This pair was formerly part of the Russian Crown Jewels sold by the Bolshevik government after the Russian Revolution in 1917.

Scenes commemorating the marriage banquet were popular subjects for 18th-century fans. In this example, the fan painter has combined it with the taste for classicism and portrays the Altar of Hymen (god of marriage). As the bride and groom approach, clouds billow around the altar, a rainbow springs from the earth, and angels hold aloft portraits of the couple. The still-life vignettes on either side attest to the life of opulence and wealth that awaits them. On the reverse of the fan is the banquet scene, with magnificent silver, glass and liberal quantities of wine, all set in a pastoral landscape.

This finely painted fan shows 'Hector's Farewell to Andromache'. This is an episode in 'The Iliad', an epic Greek poem by Homer about the Trojan War. Andromache's pleas fail to prevent her husband Hector from joining battle with the Greeks and he is later killed by Achilles. The mother-of-pearl sticks have superb carving and piercing and add richness and lustre. Fans were part of the language of love and romance throughout the 18th century. Although lovers never agreed on a precise code, women were certainly aware that they could use their fans to attract men.

During the 17th and 18th century many fans were produced in China for the European market. This influx of new designs was digested and transformed by European artists. The intricately carved and pierced sticks on this fan depict figures in European dress. The fan leaf, painted in watercolour, is probably a European copy of a Chinese design and shows Chinese figures in a landscape setting. One of the women depicted is holding a folded paper fan decorated with pink flowers echoing the simple floral design that is painted on the reverse of this fan.

Women's riding outfits, known as riding habits, of the 18th century adapted elements of men's dress. This jacket of the 1750s is styled after a man's coat, although it has been modified with a waist seam to fit over stays and a wide petticoat. Careful mitring and gathering of the heavy braid allows its arrangement around the pockets and into rococo curves down the jacket front. The trim consists of three parts: a wide ribbon of silver thread woven in a geometrical pattern, and a narrow gimp of silver on either side.

In the 18th century a man's suit was not necessarily all made of the same fabrics. Sometimes the coat and waistcoat were of the same material, sometimes the coat and breeches, and sometimes all were made of different colours and fabrics. This ensemble from the 1740s was made to be worn together, but it consists of contrasting green and red wool. Both are trimmed with a wide braid of silver-gilt thread. Typical of the style of men's dress of this period, the coat is collarless. It fits tightly to the body, but has very full skirts pleated to the sides at the hip. The sleeve cuffs are not quite as deep as they were in the 1730s.

Rome was one of the most popular cities on the 'Grand Tour' of Europe. From about 1750 to 1790 many Britons visited the city. They bought fans made for the tourist industry that commemorated well-known 'sights'. The leaf of this fan illustrates the Piazza del Popolo. This fine square is situated at the entry to Rome from the north and is the first memorable view of the city. On the right is a view of the Colosseum and on the left is the tomb of Cecilia Metella. The delicate swags that make up the decorative borders of the vignettes show the influence of the Neo-classical style of the late 18th century.

Pastoral scenes were a popular type of painted decoration for 18th-century fans. These images of idyllic landscapes allowed wealthy people to escape to an idealised countryside that bore no resemblance to reality. Some pastoral views show activities quite at odds with their outdoor setting. It is as if the characters had been plucked out of a drawing room. For example in this fan a group of people are sitting in a garden watching a young man building a house of cards. The pyramid of cards is quite high, but the next breath of wind would presumably send the cards flying.

Hair jewels were worn to cherish the living as well as to remember the dead. The survival of many pieces celebrating love and friendship, such as this jewell, indicate their great social importance. Hair had long been important in sentimental jewellery, but during the 18th century it took on a new prominence. It could now form the centrepiece of a jewel, arranged in complicated motifs or as plain, woven sections. Tiny fragments of hair could even be incorporated into delicate paintings. Some designs were made by professionals, but many women chose to work the hair of loved ones themselves, using gum to secure their creations.

This fan has elaborate decoration of panels of net inserted into the vellum leaf. The central scene reflects the influence of the paintings of François Boucher and Jean Honoré Fragonard. Two girls sit in a garden with rose trellis and lake behind, while Cupid aims his arrow at one of them. Such an idealised outdoor scene is typical of the pastoral views popular on 18th-century fans. Each of the guards at either end of the fan bears three miniature portraits. In 1711, The Spectator satirised the use of fans, claiming 'women are armed with Fans as Men with Swords, and sometimes do more Execution with them'.

Hair had long been important in sentimental jewellery, but during the 18th century it took on a new prominence. It could now form the centrepiece of a jewel, arranged in complicated motifs or as plain, woven sections. Tiny fragments of hair could even be incorporated into delicate paintings. Some designs were made by professionals, but many women chose to work the hair of loved ones themselves, using gum to secure their creations. Hair jewels were worn to cherish the living as well as to remember the dead. The survival of many pieces celebrating love and friendship indicate their great social importance.

This fan has a silk leaf embroidered with sequins and highly decorated sticks. These are typical features of fans of the 1780s. A prim young girl is seated with a large, rather untidy woman beside her, while two gentlemen shake hands. It represents a marriage scene, possibly of a bride and groom of different social backgrounds. In England, this was a very popular subject in 18th-century literature. It was the theme of Samuel Richardon's novel Pamela, published in 1740, and plays such as David Garrick's The Clandestine Marriage (1766).

The influence of Neo-classical design is evident in the decoration of this waistcoat of the 1780s. Embroidered floral garlands and ribbons, elements of late-18th century decoration, adorn the pockets. Medallions of black satin printed with classical figures have been applied to the front and collar. The square-cut shape, standing collar and welt pocket are characteristic of the waistcoat styles in the 1780s.

This painted fan shows the element of fantasy in Chinoiserie styles. An island floats in mid-air, while a person of rank in oriental costume is carried on a litter and attended by a warrior on horseback. On the right-hand side is a group of rather tame wild animals. A peacock and a heron are fighting on the left. The reverse of the fan shows a scene on a beach with shells, sprays of flowers, and clusters of exotic fruits. The motifs all show the strong influence of the Rococo style of the mid 18th century.

Miniature painting originally referred to the art of painting in watercolour on vellum (fine animal skin). It developed in the early 16th century out of the tradition of illuminating manuscripts (hand-written books). In England, miniature was predominantly a portrait art. It was practised by specialist miniature painters, such as Nicholas Hilliard (1547-1619). On the Continent, miniature painting as a portrait art had a few great practitioners, such as the French painter Jean Clouet (1516?-1572). But not even Clouet was a specialist. Like Hans Holbein, he worked both in miniature and in large in oil. In France, it was not until the 1770s that a notable school of portrait miniaturists emerged. It was only then that they were able to rival English ones, such as Richard Cosway (1742-1821) and John Smart (1742-1811). Like Cosway and Smart, these French artists worked in watercolour on ivory. In the early 18th century ivory began to replace vellum as a support for miniature painting. It was introduced by Rosalba Carriera (1675-1757), a Venetian artist. Its use developed in distinct ways in England and on the Continent. In continental Europe, and especially in France, Carriera's method of using opaque 'gouache' (watercolour mixed with white) was influential. She exploited the ivory primarily by leaving the face transparent. In contrast, by the 1770s artists of the English School tended towards transparent pigments. They very rarely used gouache. This miniature is by Pierre Adolphe Hall (1739-93), who was born in Sweden. He studied painting in Berlin in 1756, in Hamburg in 1758, and in Stockholm from 1760 to 1766. By 1769 he was in Paris, where he became an associate of the Academy. Although he was Swedish by origin, Hall is considered to be the greatest French miniaturist of the second half of the 18th century.

In the first half of the 18th century elegant footwear became prominent in the language of display. A glimpse of a fine shoe might appear beneath a flowing gown when the wearer sat down, walked or danced. This shoe has a fashionable thick, waisted heel and a prow-shaped toe. The bright yellow worsted wool reflects the wide range of colours and materials available. They would be used to match or complement the gown with which the shoe was worn.

Object TypeThis elegant robe and petticoat are fine examples of a woman's formal daywear in the early 1760s. In cut, fabric and design they were the height of fashion.Materials & MakingThe pattern on the silk is hand-painted. The fabric was first sized with alum to make the paint adhere. Next the design was drawn freehand in ink or silverpoint. A variety of pigments were used, including white lead or a chalk ground for the highlights. The robe and petticoat are hand sewn with silk thread and trimmed with gathered strips of the hand-painted silk.TimeThe style and design of this ensemble exemplify the Rococo fashion in dress. The pale yellow silk painted in a variety of bright colours reflects the Rococo palette, while the scalloped sleeve cuffs and gathered robings create a decorative surface pattern. The robe is a sack back (a style of gown with the fabric at the back arranged in box pleats at the shoulders and falling loose to the floor with a slight train), and would have been worn with a wide square hoop under the petticoat.PlacesThe silk was woven and painted in China. The width of the fabric and the use of coloured threads in the selvedge (the cloth edge) differ from European silks. The floral pattern shows the influence of Western design, indicating that it was made expressly for the European market.

This waistcoat is made of silk woven by a well-known 18th century London weaving company, Maze and Steer. Their pattern book of “Fancy Vestings and Handkerchief Goods” in the Museum's collections (Museum no. T.384-1972), features this design woven in 1788 in three colourways. The square-cut shape, standing collar and welt pocket are characteristic of the waistcoat styles in the 1780s.

This jewelled spray of flowers would have been worn in the hair or attached to the bodice of a gown. Flowers were a fashionable theme in jewellery during the second half of the 18th century, and could form large and intricate compositions. This piece was originally part of the Russian Imperial Collection. The Bolshevik government sold it after the Russian Revolution of 1917.

This necklace would have fitted closely around the neck like a choker. Very sophisticated imitation jewellery was made in Europe in the 18th century, and it was sold by many of the leading jewellers. Before Australian opals became accessible, the opal was a rare stone. Here its shimmering beauty was achieved by setting a pink foil beneath a milky blue glass.

This jewel would have decorated the front of a bodice from the neckline to just below the waist. It was known as a stomacher. The faceted rock crystal and glass stones have a foil set behind them to increase their sparkle. They are cut to resemble rose-cut diamonds. Very sophisticated imitation jewellery was made in Europe in the 18th century, and it was sold by many of the leading jewellers.

By the end of the 18th century in Britain, men's breeches were becoming more tightly fitted, in keeping with the streamlined cut of the coat and waistcoat. Breeches made of machine-knitted cotton and silk became popular, as a knitted fabric gave the ease required for sitting and standing.

Very sophisticated imitation jewellery was made in Europe in the 18th century. It was sold by many of the leading jewellers. Before Australian opals became accessible, the opal was a rare stone. Here its shimmering beauty was achieved by setting a pink foil beneath a milky blue glass. (Image - bottom, centre)

Very sophisticated imitation jewellery was made in Europe in the 18th century. It was sold by many of the leading jewellers. Before Australian opals became accessible, the opal was a rare stone. Here its shimmering beauty was achieved by setting a pink foil beneath a milky blue glass.

This extraordinary length of embroidered silk documents three important aspects of 18th-century dress: the high quality of French needlework, the sequence of decorating and sewing up waistcoats and the efforts to which the British went to acquire desirable French fashions. To make an embroidered waistcoat, the needlework was done first on two lengths of fabric, one for the left front and the other for the right front. The lengths, known as waistcoat shapes, were purchased at a silk mercers or haberdashers, then taken to a tailor for making up into a waistcoat. The stamp seen on the inside of the lower right edge reads 'Custom House / SEIZED DOVER / GR II', indicating that this is contraband - a French waistcoat shape apprehended during an attempt to smuggle it into England during the reign of George II (1727-60). For most of the 18th century, imported French silks and laces were taxed heavily, in order to protect British textile industries. Smuggling of these and other taxable goods was rife through all levels of society; customs officials at British ports searched very carefully and seized any contraband items. Articles confiscated in this manner were usually burned, so the survival of this beautiful but forbidden object is indeed remarkable.

Flowers were a fashionable theme in jewellery during the second half of the 18th century. Intricate and colourful 'giardinetti' rings (from the Italian, meaning 'little garden') were popular. They had tiny blossoms set with an assortment of precious stones, asymmetrically arranged in a basket, vase or pot. (Image - Centre)

Very sophisticated imitation jewellery was made in Europe in the 18th century. It was sold by many of the leading jewellers. Before Australian opals became accessible, the opal was a rare stone. Here its shimmering beauty was achieved by setting a pink foil beneath a milky blue glass.

Flowers were a fashionable theme in jewellery during the second half of the 18th century. Intricate and colourful 'giardinetti' rings (from the Italian, meaning 'little garden') were popular. They had tiny blossoms set with an assortment of precious stones, asymmetrically arranged in a basket, vase or pot.

Pastoral scenes were popular subjects for fan leaves in the 18th century. They depicted highly romanticised views of landscapes and rural pursuits. Antoine Watteau was a well-known French painter of pastoral scenes. His works served as models and inspiration for many fan painters throughout the century. This fan clearly shows Watteau's influence. A group of prosperous young men and women have escaped to an isolated meadow to eat, drink and play music. The pastel colours and delicate forms reflect the influence of the Rococo style.

This is an unusual example of a banyan or nightgown for a woman. In the 1650s, the introduction of the Japanese kimono to Western society by the Dutch East India Company started a fashion for these simple loose garments. While it was difficult to import traditional kimonos from Japan, English tailors were soon making them up in the most fashionable silks. The woman's banyan remained an informal garment throughout the 18th century. It would have been worn over stays and petticoats in the privacy of home, either in the morning before dressing formally for the day or in the evening before changing for bed.

This particular example from the period 1750 to 1770 combines the traditional T-shape of a kimono with the conventional European shaping for a woman's gown at the back and sides. The textile is of great interest to the V&A: it is similar in style to the work of Anna Maria Garthwaite, one of the leading English silk designers of the 18th century, and research is ongoing to see if it matches one of the many patterns known to have been designed by her. It may have been designed by an unknown contemporary of Garthwaite's and therefore indicate the degree to which her styles influenced damask design during the 1740s.

Gold or silver buckles for shoes were in fashion for most of the 18th century. They gave the finishing touches to elegant dress and were one of the few pieces of jewellery worn by men as well as women. Gentlemen wore matching shoe and knee buckles. Making buckles became a highly skilled craft at which English silversmiths and jewellers excelled. Exquisitely wrought designs, glittering pastes and precious stones reflected the status of the wearer as well as the occasion. Cheaper and plainer versions were made of steel, brass and other metal alloys. By 1790 shoe buckles were falling out of use, except as part of ceremonial or court dress. This buckle is one of a pair, with Museum no. M.32A-1909. It features bright-cutting - a method of engraving popular in the late 18th century whereby shallow curved grooves were cut with sides of varying steepness to create facets that give a reflective, sparkling effect. The buckle is also granulated; that is, decorated with tiny spheres of metal.

Stays were an essential item of underwear for women during the 18th century. By the 1780s, the fashionable torso consisted of an inverted cone shape. Achieving smoothness of profile and firmness of contour were the primary function of 18th-century stays, rather than emphasising the bust or constricting the waist. Although custom-made and very intricately designed, stays were usually very plain. On these stays a simple silk ribbon and linen tape serve as decoration and functional finishings. The narrow rows of very fine, even handstitching form the compartments into which thin strips of whalebone were inserted. Although the stays appear very rigid, whalebone was quite flexible. It had the added advantage of softening with the heat of the wearer's body, allowing the stays to mold to her shape. When worn, the shaped and boned tabs at the lower edge would splay over the wearer's hips, giving further fullness to the petticoat tied at the waist over the stays.

Stays were an essential item of underwear for women during the 18th century. By the 1780s, the fashionable torso consisted of an inverted cone shape. Achieving smoothness of profile and firmness of contour were the primary function of 18th-century stays, rather than emphasising the bust or constricting the waist. Although custom-made and very intricately designed, stays were usually very plain. In this example a narrow blue ribbon covering the seams is the only decoration. The narrow rows of very fine, even hand-stitching form the compartments into which thin strips of whalebone were inserted. Although the stays appear very rigid, whalebone was quite flexible. It had the added advantage of softening with the heat of the wearer's body, allowing the stays to mould to her shape. When worn, the shaped and boned tabs at the lower edge would splay over the wearer's hips, giving further fullness to the petticoat tied at the waist over the stays.

In the 18th century, women's pockets were not sewn into their gowns. Instead they were attached to a tape and tied around the waist as separate garments. Worn under the hoops and petticoats, they were accessed through openings in the gown and petticoat seams. This pair of silk satin pockets is somewhat of a mystery, as the lack of decoration makes it very hard to assign a date. The pockets were acquired with a quilted white satin petticoat, and it is assumed they were worn with it. Completely plain, they illustrate an equally attractive alternative to the embroidered examples. Although the tie has been broken and retied, there are few other signs of wear. From letters, diaries and novels of the 18th century it is clear that pockets often held a wide variety of objects both personal and practical, including letters, money, jewellery, handkerchiefs, sewing kits, mirrors and keys, among other things.

In the 18th century, women's pockets were not sewn into their gowns. Instead they were attached to a tape and tied around the waist as separate garments. Worn under the hoops and petticoats, they were accessed through openings in the gown and petticoat seams. Pockets of the early 18th century show a variety of influences in their embroidery designs. Some come from imported Indian textiles, others from various types of British needlework found on both dress and furnishings. The stitched pattern of overlapping circles seen here can also be seen on quilted bed and cushion covers. The spiky flowers and leaves and use of small floral motifs show the influence of Indian printed cottons. Typical of pocket embroidery is the placement of a border around the edge and the pocket opening with a repeated design filling the centre. The arrangement of the colours defining the motifs is slightly different on each pocket.

Object TypeA wide range of decorative buttons were used on men's clothing in the 18th century. Precious metal buttons set with jewels were the most exclusive, but there were other materials, such as glass paste, that were used to achieve the effect of real gems at a more reasonable price. Cut steel was a substitute for paste that became a fashionable medium for jewellery in its own right.Ownership & UseThe 18th-century man's coat sported numerous buttons down the front as well as on the sleeve cuffs and almost as many on the waistcoat worn underneath. By the 1780s, very large buttons had become fashionable, offering an expanded surface for decoration.Materials & MakingFrom the 1750s, jewellers used highly polished steel, mounted with facetted studs, for buttons and buckles. Initially developed in England in centres such as Birmingham, Woodstock and Wolverhampton, the fashion for cut steel soon spread to France. It remained a popular medium for jewellery well into the 19th century.

This pair of women's shoes is made up of a brocaded silk woven in Spitalfields, London. Indoor shoes for women were usually made of patterned silk although it was very rare for them to match the fabric of the gown worn with them. The shoes have a fashionable pointed toe, a medium stocky heel and latchets that would have been fastened with buckles. Buckles were regarded as separate accessories and transferred from one pair of shoes to another. The shoes are complemented by the velvet pattens in which they sit. These pattens are described separately (see T.274B&C-1922). Lack of wear suggests that shoes like this went with a luxurious lifestyle and were perhaps worn in dry conditions, in sedan chairs or even indoors. They were really fashion accessories, without any real utilitarian value.

Vocalist; print; hand-coloured stipple engraving; Macdonnell Collection; Music, Performing Arts; Singers

Courtesan; print; mezzotint; Macdonnell Collection; Miscellaneous; Courtesans and courtiers

The Dead Mouse is typical of Boilly’s sentimental approach in the 1780s and 1790s, and demonstrates his fine technique reminiscent of the then fashionable Dutch seventeenth-century Fijnschilders (cf. Dou and Willem van Mieris (qq.v.)). The picture relates to another work by the artist, called L’optique, which was shown at the Salon of 1793, and the mother and little boy recur in other works of the period by the artist. The chair appears to have been a studio prop, as similar chairs are listed in the posthumous inventory of Boilly’s first wife, and the same piece of furniture can be seen in The Sorrows of Love (Boilly P479). Boilly became a favourite artist of the 4th Marquess of Hertford, who later in his collecting career seems to have been particularly attracted to his early sentimental and amorous genre scenes.

Cosway was the most fashionable miniaturist of late eighteenth-century London. Styling himself First Painter to His Highness the Prince of Wales from about 1786, Cosway gained royal favour by painting a miniature of Mrs Fitzherbert. Born Maria Smythe (1756-1837), Mrs Fitzherbert secretly married the Prince in 1785, but being a Catholic, the marriage was declared illegal. The couple separated in 1803, but the Prince continued to wear a miniature of his lover by Cosway which he insisted on taking to the grave. The Wallace Collection miniature demonstrates how Cosway aimed to invest his portraits with greater luminosity and vivacity through a lighter palette and the fluid use of gouache on ivory.

A fine example of Greuze’s modern moral genre subjects, The Broken Mirror is a parable of carelessness, where the disarray of the interior and girl’s dress reflects the disarray of her morals. The fact that the girl in the present picture laments the loss of her virginity before marriage is emphasised by the yapping dog, a common symbol of carnal desire in eighteenth-century French painting, and the ringless hand that draws our attention in the centre of the picture. The picture belonged to Boucher’s friend, Randon de Boisset, who refused to lend it to the Salon of 1763.

Miniatures accorded perfectly with the eighteenth-century French love of the intimate, the gallant and the bijou, leading to an expansion of the type of subjects treated. Lafrensen specialized in exquisitely painted miniature gallant and erotic scenes like this vision of two semi-clad beauties chatting during their morning ablutions. The artist pays great attention to the fashionable paraphernalia of dress and interior, adding a frisson of voyeuristic excitement with the vision of the girl using a chamber pot. Expressly intended for the private delectation of the connoisseur, such images were often popularized to a wider audience through prints.

From the costume and style, Portrait of a Lady appears to have been painted c.1786. It was thought in the nineteenth century to depict the actress Sophie Arnould (1744-1802; cf. Greuze P413), but the date and appearance of the sitter disprove this identification. Typical of the charming female heads so appreciated by the 4th Marquess of Hertford, it hung next to his ‘magnificent bed’ in his rue Laffitte apartment according to the critic Thoré-Bürger, with Lawrence’s Portrait of a Lady P41 on the other side.

A Family Group in a GardenBritish School 18th centurycirca 1754Watercolour and gouache on papersupport: 392 x 357 mmBequeathed by Alan Evans 1974

Women's underwear served two purposes in the 18th century. The first function, carried out by the shift or smock, was to protect the clothing from the body, in an age when daily bathing was not customary. Made of very fine linen, the shift was the first garment put on when dressing. Over the shift went the linen stays, heavily reinforced with strips of whalebone. Their purpose was to mould the torso to the fashionable shape and provide a rigid form on which the gown could be arranged and fastened. The hoops were also made of linen and stiffened with whalebone or cane. They shaped the petticoat of the gown to the appropriate silhouette. At various times in the 18th century this profile varied from round, to square and flat, to fan-shaped.

The sack-back gown was the most popular style of formal dress for women in the mid-18th century. It was loose at the back, with the fabric gathered into pleats at the shoulder. In front, the gown was open, showing off a decorative stomacher and petticoat. This example is decorated with ruchings and ruffles of the same silk, edged with white fly fringe (a type of silk fringe). The arrangement of these decorations in curves and loops shows Rococo influence. The bright yellow colour of the silk was a popular shade in 18th century women's dress.

The term 'Macaroni' arose in the middle of the 18th century. It referred to wealthy young men who wore the elaborate style of dress that they had seen during their 'Grand Tour' of Europe. In the 18th century many noblemen and gentlemen went on the Grand Tour to complete their education. The aim was to see the great sights of Europe, especially those in Italy. The name 'Macaroni' was probably taken from the Macaroni Club, a fashionable dining society that specialised in foreign foods such as macaroni. This watercolour may also be connected with the second use of the Italian word 'maccherone', meaning a fool. It is possible that the principal figure is Charles Douglas, 3rd Duke of Queensbury (1698-1778).

The shirt was an item of underwear in the 18th century. Its purpose was to protect the outer clothing from the body in an age when daily bathing was not a common practice. Shirts were purchased in the dozens if the owner could afford them, so that a clean one could be worn every day. They were usually made of linen, a washable and durable fabric. The construction of the shirt was very simple. It was made up of a series of squares and rectangles in a manner so that no scraps were left over after the pieces had been cut from a length of linen. The stitching on 18th-century shirts is extremely fine, so as to prevent seams from fraying during the harsh hand-laundering process. But apart from changes in the depth of cuffs and collars and width of sleeves, the style of the shirt alters little between the 16th century and the mid-19th.

This nightgown is an example of one type of informal clothing worn by men in the 18th century. Nightgowns were worn over shirt and breeches, in the privacy of home before noon or late at night. They first appear in the male wardrobe in the mid-17th century, inspired by the kimonos given by the Japanese shoguns to the directors of the Dutch East India Company. During the 18th century nightgowns evolved into several different shapes, from the simple T-shape of the original kimono to others cut more like the European coat, using a variety of fabrics, including silk, cotton and wool. This example looks like a nightgown and waistcoat but it is one garment, with the waistcoat fronts stitched to the side seams of the gown. The waistcoat skirts recall the styles of the 1770s, while the high collar and revers (lapels) of the gown are in keeping with coat fashions of the early 19th century.

Women's riding outfits, known as 'riding habits', of the 18th century adapted elements of men's dress. This jacket of the 1750s is styled after a man's coat, although it has been modified with a waist seam to fit over stays and a wide petticoat. A narrow straight collar attached at the back neck and buttoning in front added protection on chilly rides. The fine tailoring and plain aspect of this jacket is typical of 18th century women's riding habits.

In the 18th century women needed practical clothes for riding, travelling and walking outdoors. This example illustrates how the styles of women's riding habits were adapted from a man's coat and waistcoat. The jacket is shorter than a man's coat but has comparable buttons and trim. The waistcoat is also similar to a man's version. However, wearing breeches would have been unthinkable for a woman in the 18th century, so the petticoat was a necessary part of the riding habit.

Shoe buckles were worn by both men and women, and remained in fashion for most of the 18th century. The small functional silver buckles of the early 1700s became larger during the 1720s. By the mid-18th century colour and sparkle were added with gemstones or paste. By 1790 shoe buckles were falling out of use, except as part of ceremonial or court dress. This pair is of especial interest as the identity of their original owner is known: Admiral Sir Rupert George (1749-1823).

Wide-brimmed hats with shallow crowns were popular for women in the mid 18th century. They were often made in a range of materials such as straw, openwork, paper and ribbon. This example shows the use of feathers of common origin, such as those from cocks or guinea fowl, dyed in a variety of colours for a vivid effect. Such hats were worn as fashionable daywear with short jackets and petticoats. They demonstrate the 18th-century trend for taking items traditionally associated with working-class dress and transforming them into fashionable styles.

This garment represents an 18th-century style of jacket known as a Brunswick. A shortened version of the formal sack-back dress, the Brunswick became popular in the 1760s for travelling and informal dress. Although this example has a hood, the very fine watered silk suggests it was intended for casual day wear rather than the rigours of 18th-century travel. Some variations have wrist-length sleeves, and buttons at the elbow of this jacket indicate that it might once have had removable extensions of the sleeve to cover the forearms.

Quilting was a popular form of needlework in the 18th century. Both decorative and practical, it was used on clothing and furnishings such as bedcovers and hangings. Quilted furnishings were often remade into clothing, as in this particular gown. The pattern of the quilting indicates that it was done in the mid-18th century. The style of gown dates from the 1780s, which shows that it was refashioned into clothing some thirty years later. This would have added a warm, attractive winter gown to a woman's wardrobe, without buying a new one.

The styles of women's shoes gradually became simpler in the late 18th century and the previously fashionable high, thick heels were replaced by a much more slender and lower heel. These shoes are typical examples from the last two decades of the 18th century. This Made of pink kid, they are stencilled with an all over triangular design in black, and bound with black ribbed silk tape. The shape of the long pointed toes is mirrored in the throat, further emphasised by a black pom-pom at the centre front. The heels are covered in dark brown leather.

Classical mythology inspired many 18th-century fans. The standard of painting on the leaf was often very high, as you can see in this example of 'Venus interceding with Jupiter'. It demonstrates all the dramatic characteristics of Baroque painting, with theatrical gestures, intense colours and exaggerated effects of light. The fan sticks are of equally good quality. They are very delicately carved and pierced with painted cartouches and inlay of mother-of-pearl. The artist has painted the reverse of the leaf with another popular 18th-century fan subject - a Chinoiserie scene.

Breeches made in the 18th century have a distinctive cut. The legs are widely splayed, and the back of the breeches are much deeper than the front. This follows the cut of breeches made for horseback riding. Even though a pair made of fine silk, such as these, would never have been worn when sitting on a horse, the style is the same, illustrating the conservative nature of the tailoring trade. The cut of breeches changed little during the 18th century. Some guidelines for dating them are the more streamlined style of the latter half of the century, compared to the baggier fit of the period 1700-1750. As the waistcoat shortened through the century, the front closing of the breeches changed from the fly-front of the first half of the century to a more modest fall-front opening of the period 1750-1800.

Shoe buckles were worn by both men and women, and remained in fashion for most of the 18th century. The small functional silver buckles of the early 1700s became larger during the 1720s. By the mid-18th century colour and sparkle were added with gemstones or paste. By 1790 shoe buckles were falling out of use except as part of ceremonial or court dress. (Image - bottom right)

Very sophisticated imitation jewellery was made in Europe in the 18th century. It was sold by many of the leading jewellers. This style of earring (with three drops from a central top) is known as a girandole, and was very typical of the mid- to late 18th century. Before Australian opals became accessible, the opal was a rare stone. Here its shimmering beauty was achieved by setting a pink foil beneath a milky blue glass.

painting; oil on canvas; The art dealer and banker Thomas Jenkins was sometimes considered England's unofficial ambassador in Rome. His niece, Anna Maria, went to live with him in 1788. In 1790 she was searching for a husband and this portrait can be viewed as an advertisement of her charms. The rural setting, with distant view of the Colosseum, her white dress and the flowers she holds, all signify Anna Maria's beauty and purity. Welcoming potential suitors, her uncle takes off his hat and pats the dog - symbol of loyalty - whose collar reads 'Jenkins'.; Beningbrough Hall, Double portraits, Hats and head-attire, Pets and animals, Regency Style - Women, Rural landscapes; Art and Architecture, Business and Industry; Art dealers, collectors and patrons, Artists and artisans, Bankers and Financiers